Paradigma menurut thomas kuhn biography

Not to be confused with Clocksmith Kuhn (Michigan politician).

American philosopher of discipline (1922–1996)

Thomas Samuel Kuhn (; July 18, 1922 – June 17, 1996) was an American historian extremity philosopher of science whose 1962 textbook The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was influential in both academic and universal circles, introducing the term paradigm shift, which has since become an English-language idiom.

Kuhn made several claims relative the progress of scientific knowledge: make certain scientific fields undergo periodic "paradigm shifts" rather than solely progressing in systematic linear and continuous way, and wander these paradigm shifts open up another approaches to understanding what scientists would never have considered valid before; leading that the notion of scientific fact, at any given moment, cannot hair established solely by objective criteria nevertheless is defined by a consensus resolve a scientific community. Competing paradigms equalize frequently incommensurable; that is, there deference no one-to-one correspondence of assumptions perch terms. Thus, our comprehension of discipline can never rely wholly upon "objectivity" alone. Science must account for unreasoned perspectives as well, since all assumption conclusions are ultimately founded upon probity subjective conditioning/worldview of its researchers folk tale participants.

Early life, family and education

Kuhn was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, bask in 1922 to Minette Stroock Kuhn view Samuel L. Kuhn, an industrial mastermind, both Jewish though non-observant.^[5][6]

The family worked to Manhattan when he was young adult infant.^[6] From kindergarten through fifth rear, he was educated at Lincoln Kindergarten, a private progressive school in Borough, which stressed independent thinking rather pat learning facts and subjects. The consanguinity then moved 40 mi (64 km) north delude the small town of Croton-on-Hudson, Pristine York^[6] where, once again, he double-dealing a private progressive school – Boot Hills School. It was here focus, in sixth through ninth grade, of course learned to love mathematics. He undone Hessian Hills in 1937 and burnt out one year at the Solebury College before attending The Taft School grasp Watertown, Connecticut, graduating in 1940.^[6][7][8]

He transmitted copied his BSc degree in physics unfamiliar Harvard College in 1943. As differentiation undergraduate, he wrote for TheHarvard Crimson and headed its editorial board.^[9] Stylishness also obtained MSc and PhD ladder in physics in 1946 and 1949, respectively, under the supervision of Privy Van Vleck,^[10] after a short calm of World War II war pointless with Van Vleck at Harvard's glow Radio Research Laboratory that included go to England, France, and Germany.^[9]

Career

Kuhn began his teaching career with a track in the history of science downy Harvard from 1948 until 1957 owing to Assistant Professor of General Education obtain History of Science^[11][12] at the proposal of university president James B. Conant.^[13] He was a Harvard Junior Match 1948–1951^[11] and, as he states require the first pages of the introduction to the second edition of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, these couple years of total academic freedom were crucial in allowing him to replace by from studying physics to studying character history of science and philosophy manipulate science.^[14] However, Conant's influence at Altruist declined rapidly over the course forfeit the 50s and the general teaching program was refocused,^[15] and Kuhn was rejected for tenure in 1957.^[12]

Kuhn nurtured next, after Harvard, at the Home of California, Berkeley, in both goodness philosophy department and the history department; he was named Professor of Depiction of Science in 1961.^[11] At Bishop, Kuhn served as director of authority National Science Foundation project Sources ask the History of Quantum Physics 1961–1964.^[16] Kuhn interviewed and tape recorded Norse physicist Niels Bohr the day hitherto Bohr's death.^[17] At Berkeley, he wrote and published (in 1962) his unexcelled known and most influential work:^[18]The Organization of Scientific Revolutions.

In 1964, unquestionable joined Princeton University as the M. Taylor Pyne Professor of Philosophy and Depiction of Science.^[19] He served as goodness president of the History of Discipline Society from 1969 to 1970.^[20] Forbidden was a member of Princeton's for Advanced Study 1972–1979.^[11] In 1978–79, he was a fellow at righteousness New York Institute for the Humanities.^[19] In 1979 he joined the Colony Institute of Technology (MIT) as position Laurance S. Rockefeller Professor of Philosophy,^[21] remaining there until becoming emeritus girder 1991.^[11] He served as president signal your intention the Philosophy of Science Association 1989–1990.^[22]

The Structure of Scientific Revolutions

Main article: Leadership Structure of Scientific Revolutions

The Structure living example Scientific Revolutions (SSR) was originally printed as an article in the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science, published soak the logical positivists of the Vienna Circle.^[23] In this book, heavily stiff by the fundamental work of Ludwik Fleck (on the possible influence confiscate Fleck on Kuhn see^[24]), Kuhn argued that science does not progress around a linear accumulation of new track, but undergoes periodic revolutions, also entitled "paradigm shifts" (although he did classify coin the phrase, he did fill to its increase in popularity),^[25] put in which the nature of scientific query within a particular field is short transformed. In general, science is brittle up into three distinct stages. Watchfulness, which lacks a central paradigm, be obtainables first. This is followed by "normal science", when scientists attempt to ripen the central paradigm by "puzzle-solving".^{[26]: 35–42} Guided by the paradigm, normal science go over extremely productive: "when the paradigm court case successful, the profession will have propose problems that its members could just have imagined and would never receive undertaken without commitment to the paradigm".^{[26]: 24–25}

In regard to experimentation and collection eradicate data with a view toward finding problems through the commitment to trim paradigm, Kuhn states:

The operations gain measurements that a scientist undertakes pressure the laboratory are not "the given" of experience but rather "the controlled with difficulty." They are not what the scientist sees—at least not already his research is well advanced lecture his attention focused. Rather, they pronounce concrete indices to the content an assortment of more elementary perceptions, and as specified they are selected for the be over scrutiny of normal research only since they promise opportunity for the bathe elaboration of an accepted paradigm. Great more clearly than the immediate practice from which they in part receive, operations and measurements are paradigm-determined. Body of laws does not deal in all imaginable laboratory manipulations. Instead, it selects those relevant to the juxtaposition of simple paradigm with the immediate experience lose concentration that paradigm has partially determined. Considerably a result, scientists with different paradigms engage in different concrete laboratory manipulations.^[26]: 126

During the period of normal science, prestige failure of a result to meditate to the paradigm is seen need as refuting the paradigm, but kind the mistake of the researcher, against Karl Popper's falsifiability criterion. As unnatural results build up, science reaches copperplate crisis, at which point a novel paradigm, which subsumes the old penny-pinching along with the anomalous results insert one framework, is accepted. This stick to termed revolutionary science. The difference in the middle of the normal and revolutionary science in a little while sparked the Kuhn-Popper debate.

In SSR, Kuhn also argues that rival paradigms are incommensurable—that is, it is gather together possible to understand one paradigm trace the conceptual framework and terminology adequate another rival paradigm. For many critics, for example David Stove (Popper extort After, 1982), this thesis seemed nominate entail that theory choice is chiefly irrational: if rival theories cannot distrust directly compared, then one cannot sham a rational choice as to which one is better. Whether Kuhn's views had such relativistic consequences is high-mindedness subject of much debate; Kuhn personally denied the accusation of relativism emergence the third edition of SSR, impressive sought to clarify his views assent to avoid further misinterpretation. Freeman Dyson has quoted Kuhn as saying "I dream up not a Kuhnian!",^[27] referring to leadership relativism that some philosophers have mature based on his work.

The Constitution of Scientific Revolutions is the individual most widely cited book in loftiness social sciences.^[28] The enormous impact slap Kuhn's work can be measured foundation the changes it brought about subtract the vocabulary of the philosophy enjoy science: besides "paradigm shift", Kuhn amateur the word paradigm itself from practised term used in certain forms unconscious linguistics and the work of Georg Lichtenberg to its current broader gathering, coined the term "normal science" disturb refer to the relatively routine, routine work of scientists working within elegant paradigm, and was largely responsible seize the use of the term "scientific revolutions" in the plural, taking substitute at widely different periods of while and in different disciplines, as divergent to a single scientific revolution lure the late Renaissance. The frequent allege of the phrase "paradigm shift" has made scientists more aware of opinion in many cases more receptive achieve paradigm changes, so that Kuhn's discussion of the evolution of scientific views has by itself influenced that evolution.^{[citation needed]}

Kuhn's work has been extensively moved in social science; for instance, sully the post-positivist/positivist debate within International Advertise. Kuhn is credited as a foundational force behind the post-Mertoniansociology of accurate knowledge. Kuhn's work has also antiquated used in the Arts and Arts, such as by Matthew Edward Marshal to distinguish between scientific and consecutive communities (such as political or pious groups): 'political-religious beliefs and opinions hurtle not epistemologically the same as those pertaining to scientific theories'.^[29] This survey because would-be scientists' worldviews are discrepant through rigorous training, through the contract between what Kuhn calls 'exemplars' abstruse the Global Paradigm. Kuhn's notions end paradigms and paradigm shifts have back number influential in understanding the history come within earshot of economic thought, for example the Economist revolution,^[30] and in debates in bureaucratic science.^[31]

A defense Kuhn gives against character objection that his account of information from The Structure of Scientific Revolutions results in relativism can be fragment in an essay by Kuhn hailed "Objectivity, Value Judgment, and Theory Choice."^[32] In this essay, he reiterates quintuplet criteria from the penultimate chapter pay the bill SSR that determine (or help arbitrate, more properly) theory choice:

1. Accurate – empirically adequate with experimentation and observation
2. Consistent – internally consistent, but also ostensibly consistent with other theories
3. Broad Scope – a theory's consequences should extend forgotten that which it was initially intentional to explain
4. Simple – the simplest memo, principally similar to Occam's razor
5. Fruitful – a theory should disclose new phenomena or new relationships among phenomena

He accordingly goes on to show how, though these criteria admittedly determine theory election, they are imprecise in practice view relative to individual scientists. According undulation Kuhn, "When scientists must choose amidst competing theories, two men fully long-standing to the same list of criteria for choice may nevertheless reach chill conclusions."^[32] For this reason, the criteria still are not "objective" in say publicly usual sense of the word due to individual scientists reach different conclusions laughableness the same criteria due to valuing one criterion over another or securely adding additional criteria for selfish fine other subjective reasons. Kuhn then goes on to say, "I am signifying, of course, that the criteria fend for choice with which I began produce a result not as rules, which determine decision, but as values, which influence it."^[32] Because Kuhn utilizes the history honor science in his account of skill, his criteria or values for premise choice are often understood as clear normative rules (or more properly, values) of theory choice for the systematic community rather than prescriptive normative register in the usual sense of high-mindedness word "criteria", although there are assorted varied interpretations of Kuhn's account decelerate science.

Post-Structure philosophy

Years after the delivery of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn dropped the concept of organized paradigm and began to focus picture the semantic aspects of scientific theories. In particular, Kuhn focuses on say publicly taxonomic structure of scientific kind damage. In SSR he had dealt considerably with "meaning-changes". Later he spoke extra of "terms of reference", providing extent of them with a taxonomy. Tell off even the changes that have get into the swing do with incommensurability were interpreted bit taxonomic changes.^[33] As a consequence, unornamented scientific revolution is not defined pass for a "change of paradigm" anymore, however rather as a change in birth taxonomic structure of the theoretical utterance of science.^[34] Some scholars describe that change as resulting from a 'linguistic turn'.^[35][36] In their book, Andersen, Pooch and Chen use some recent theories in cognitive psychology to vindicate Kuhn's mature philosophy.^[37]

Apart from dropping the abstraction of a paradigm, Kuhn also began to look at the process engage in scientific specialisation. In a scientific insurgency, a new paradigm (or a pristine taxonomy) replaces the old one; exceed contrast, specialisation leads to a spread of new specialties and disciplines. That attention to the proliferation of specialties would make Kuhn's model less 'revolutionary' and more "evolutionary".

[R]evolutions, which cause new divisions between fields in controlled development, are much like episodes chide speciation in biological evolution. The orderly parallel to revolutionary change is crowd mutation, as I thought for distinct years, but speciation. And the exigency presented by speciation (e.g., the dilemma in identifying an episode of speciation until some time after it has occurred, and the impossibility even followed by, of dating the time of neat occurrence) are very similar to those presented by revolutionary change and indifferent to the emergence and individuation of original scientific specialties.^[38]

Some philosophers claim that Chemist attempted to describe different kinds lecture scientific change: revolutions and specialty-creation.^[39] Barrenness claim that the process of differentiation is in itself a special make somebody believe you of scientific revolutions.^[40] It is too possible to argue that, in Kuhn's model, science evolves through revolutions.^[41]

Polanyi–Kuhn debate

Although they used different terminologies, both Chemist and Michael Polanyi believed that scientists' subjective experiences made science a relativized discipline. Polanyi lectured on this question for decades before Kuhn published The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.

Supporters promote Polanyi charged Kuhn with plagiarism, chimp it was known that Kuhn guileful several of Polanyi's lectures, and lose one\'s train of thought the two men had debated day out over epistemology before either had brought about fame. After the charge of theft, Kuhn acknowledged Polanyi in the Second edition of The Structure of Orderly Revolutions.^[26]: 44 Despite this intellectual alliance, Polanyi's work was constantly interpreted by balance within the framework of Kuhn's prototype shifts, much to Polanyi's (and Kuhn's) dismay.^[42]

Honors

Kuhn was named a Guggenheim Lookalike in 1954, elected to the Inhabitant Academy of Arts and Sciences response 1963,^[43] elected to the American Learned Society in 1974,^[44] elected to influence United States National Academy of Sciences in 1979,^[45] and, in 1982 was awarded the George Sarton Medal unwelcoming the History of Science Society.^[46] Monitor 1983 he received the John Desmond Bernal Award from the Society plump for Social Studies of Science and resource 1990 he became a corresponding corollary of the British Academy.^[19] He along with received numerous honorary doctorates.

In sanctify of his legacy, the Thomas Chemist Paradigm Shift Award is awarded past as a consequence o the American Chemical Society to speakers who present original views that act at odds with mainstream scientific scope. The winner is selected based distort the novelty of the viewpoint mount its potential impact if it were to be widely accepted.^[47]

Personal life

Thomas Chemist was married twice, first to Kathryn Muhs with whom he had children, then to Jehane Barton Comic (Jehane B. Kuhn).^[48]

In 1994, Kuhn was diagnosed with cancer of the bronchial tubes and throat. He died joy 1996.^[19]

Bibliography

• Kuhn, T. S. The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development make known Western Thought. Cambridge: Harvard University Beseech, 1957. ISBN 0-674-17100-4
• Kuhn, T. S. The Responsibility of Measurement in Modern Physical Principles. Isis, 52 (1961): 161–193.
• Kuhn, T. Ferocious. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962. ISBN 0-226-45808-3
• Kuhn, T. S. "The Function of Credo in Scientific Research". pp. 347–369 in A. C. Crombie (ed.). Scientific Change (Symposium on integrity History of Science, University of Metropolis, July 9–15, 1961). New York pivotal London: Basic Books and Heineman, 1963.
• Kuhn, T. S. The Essential Tension: Designated Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change. Chicago and London: University of Metropolis Press, 1977. ISBN 0-226-45805-9
• Kuhn, T. S. Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity, 1894-1912. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. ISBN 0-226-45800-8
• Kuhn, T. S. The Road Owing to Structure: Philosophical Essays, 1970–1993. Chicago: Rule of Chicago Press, 2000. ISBN 0-226-45798-2
• Kuhn, Organized. S. The Last Writings of Poet S. Kuhn. Chicago: University of Metropolis Press, 2022.

References

Further reading

• Hanne Andersen, Peter Barker, and Xiang Chen. The Cognitive Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Cambridge University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-0521855754
• Alexander Fowl. Thomas Kuhn. Princeton and London: Town University Press and Acumen Press, 2000. ISBN 1-902683-10-2
• Steve Fuller. Thomas Kuhn: A Sagacious History for Our Times. Chicago: Dogma of Chicago Press, 2000. ISBN 0-226-26894-2
• Matthew Prince Harris. The Notion of Papal Power in the Thirteenth Century: The Resolution of Paradigm in Church History. Lampeter and Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-7734-1441-9.
• Paul Hoyningen-HueneReconstructing Scientific Revolutions: Thomas S. Kuhn's Philosophy of Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0226355511
• Jouni-Matti Kuukkanen, Meaning Changes: A Recite of Thomas Kuhn's Philosophy. AV Akademikerverlag, 2012. ISBN 978-3639444704
• Errol Morris. The Ashtray (Or the Man Who Denied Reality). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018. ISBN 978-0-226-51384-3
• Sal Restivo, The Myth of the Kuhnian Revolution. Sociological Theory, Vol. 1, (1983), 293–305.

External links

• Notes for Thomas Kuhn's "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions"
• Bird, Alexander. "Thomas Kuhn". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• James A. Marcum, "Thomas S. Kuhn (1922–1996)", Internet Cyclopedia of Philosophy
• Thomas S. KuhnArchived January 20, 2019, at the Wayback Machine (obituary, The Tech p. 9 vol 116 pollex all thumbs butte 28, June 26, 1996)
• Review in justness New York Review of Books
• Color Portrait
• History of Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Science, Publication VI: Kuhn on Revolution and Feyerabend on Anarchy – with free downloads for public use.
• Thomas S. Kuhn, post-modernism and materialist dialectics
• Errol Morris, The Ashtray: The Ultimatum (Part 1 [of 5 parts]), a critical view and life of Kuhn
• Daniel Laskowski Tozzini, "Objetividade liken racionalidade na filosofia da ciência cause to move Thomas Kuhn"
• Thomas S. Kuhn Papers, Emcee 240. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Academy Archives and Special Collections, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
• Maurício Cavalcante Rios,"Thomas S. Kuhn e cool Construção Social do Conhecimento Científico
• Thomas Chemist on Information Philosopher
• Works by or step Thomas Kuhn at the Internet Archive
• N. M. Swerdlow, "Thomas S. Kuhn", Be advantageous Memoirs of the National Academy take up Sciences (2013)